An Analysis of Vietnamese EFL Students’ Pronunciation of English Affricates and Nasals

International Journal of English Linguistics; Vol. 8, No. 2; 2018 
ISSN 1923-869X E-ISSN 1923-8703 
Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education 
298 
An Analysis of Vietnamese EFL Students’ Pronunciation of English 
Affricates and Nasals 
Do Phat Loi1 
1 Faculty of Foreign Languages, Van Hien University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam 
Correspondence: Do Phat Loi, Faculty of Foreign Languages, Van Hien University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. 
E-mail: loidp@vhu.edu.vn 
Received: October 25, 2017 Accepted: December 29, 2017 Online Published: January 19, 2018 
doi:10.5539/ijel.v8n2p298 URL:  
Abstract 
English learners in Vietnam may have many difficulties when pronouncing English, mainly Nasals and Affricates 
since English has been their second most used language. There are many factors which lead to this problem like 
their mother tongue, their study environment, and a lack of knowledge about English phonology and phonetics. 
This assignment analyzes the problems in English’s Affricates and Nasals pronunciations experienced by 
Vietnamese EFL students. Data were collected and analyzed from many Vietnamese students including tips and 
techniques to improve each different pronunciation of Affricates and Nasals. This research will hopefully widen 
knowledge for those who want to improve their pronunciation of Affricates and Nasals and establish more 
information which could be able to be developed in the English phonology and phonetics systems in Vietnam. 
1. Introduction 
1.1 The Background 
English is one of the most commonly used languages all over the world as it is used in many different contexts. 
In Vietnam, Project 2020 by the Vietnamese government has launched in-service training programs for ELT 
teachers at elementary, middle and high schools (Bui Phu Hung, 2016). Also, several schools in Ho Chi Minh 
City, Vietnam, have introduced content-based instructional programs (Bui Phu Hung & Tran Thi Hai, 2016). 
However, Vietnamese students’ pronunciation errors are still an issue of concern (Graceffo, 2010). Pronunciation 
errors may be caused by the teacher’s application of inappropriate teaching methods, interference of L1 (Shak, 
Lee, & Stephen, 2016). 
Pronunciation plays a significant role in real-life communication as it reflects the speakers’ identities and the 
communities which they belong to (Seidlhofer, 2001). Good pronunciation also helps students get academic 
achievements and graduates get accepted for vacancies and promotions at work. However, Shak, Lee and 
Stephen (2016) identified many problems in Vietnamese students’ pronunication of English. 
This study is aimed to analyze Vietnamese EFL students’ errors in pronunciation of affricates and nasals in 
English and suggests methods of teaching and learning pronunciation for Vietnamese students at low levels of 
proficiency as Vietnamese language does not have consonant clusters or a glide from one consonant to another as 
in English affricates (Huynh Trang Nguyen & Dutta, 2017) and Vietnamese EFL students do not pronounce 
English final consonants clearly enough (Duong Thi Nu, 2009). 
1.2 Research Questions 
1). Which of the English affricates and nasals do Vietnamese EFL students make most pronunciation errors in? 
2). Do Vietnamese students make more errors in pronoucing affricates or nasals? 
2. Literature Review 
2.1 Affricates 
2.1.1 Definition 
An affricate is a consonant that begins with a stop and ends with a fricative. These two sounds are generally 
homorganic (Roach, 2001). In other words, the places of articulation of these two sounds should be close. In 
English, there are two affricates, known as /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ in which the first consonant is an alveolar plosive, 
ijel.ccsenet.org International Journal of English Linguistics Vol. 8, No. 2; 2018 
299 
produced with a plosion, and the second is a post-alveolar fricative, produced with friction (Roach, 2001). Clark, 
Yallop & Fletcher, 1995, p. 65) believes that “There is almost always some degree of air turbulence (and hence 
friction) at the release of a stop. This is normally of such short duration that it counts as part of the release burst 
of the stop itself. However, when the release is strongly frictional and is extended in duration, it can be identified 
as a separate fricative phase of the articulation. A single complex segment of this kind, in which the articulators 
release an occlusion through a controlled fricative phase, is known as an affricate or affricative.” (Clark, Yallop, 
& Fletcher, 1995, p. 65) 
Pisoni & Remez (2005, p. 195) identify that the English affricates are an acoustic segment of oral alveolar stops 
and post-alveolar fricatives which are incorporated perceptually into a single phonological entity. This acoustic 
sequence is produced by the oral alveolar stop followed by the post-alveolar fricative. As a consequence, the 
English affricates contain acoustic cues for both stops and fricatives. That means the acoustic cues for the 
English affricates /tʃ/, /dʒ/ are more complicated than those of the English fricatives /ʃ/, /ʒ/. 
/tʃ/ is a voiceless consonant in which /t/ glides from alveolar to post-alveolar position, both /t/ and /ʃ/ are both 
voiceless consonants so /tʃ/ is a voiceless consonants. /tʃ/ can be spelled in the initial position, medial position 
and final position, usually spelled “ch”. Nonetheless, /dʒ/ is a voiced consonant which can be spelled in initial 
position, medial position and final position as “j”. The following table can illustrate this point. 
Table 1. English affricates 
Affricates Initial Medial Final 
/tʃ/ check /tʃɛk/ 
chat /tʃat/ 
teacher /ˈtitʃər/ 
kitchen /ˈkɪtʃən/ 
watch /ˈwɑtʃ/ 
catch /kætʃ/ 
/dʒ/ job /dʒɑb/ 
jam /dʒæm/ 
adjust /əˈdʒəst/ 
project /prəˈdʒɛkt/ 
fridge /frɪdʒ/ 
average /ˈævərɪdʒ/ 
Misra (2000, p. 78) identifies that /tʃ/ is a voiceless alveolar palatal affricate. This sound can be produced when 
 ... scussions 
32 recordings made by 32 the participants were analyzed with a focus on affricates and nasals at three main 
levels: high, intermediate and low. Table 4 and Table 5 illustrate this analysis of the participants’ pronunciation 
of each word in the text. The statistics show the numbers and percentages of pronunciation levels of accuracy of 
the mentioned words. 
Table 4. The analysis of affricates 
 Accuracy level 
 Word 
High Intermediate Low 
approach /əˈprəʊtʃ/ 34,4% 
(11/32) 
40,6% 
(13/32) 
25% 
 (8/32) 
children /ˈtʃɪldrən/ 59,4% 
(19/32) 
37,5% 
 (12/32) 
3,1% (1/32) 
education /ɛdʒʊˈkeɪʃən/ 15,6% 
(5/32) 
3,1% 
(1/32) 
81,3% 
(26/32) 
educationally /ˌɛdʒʊˈkeɪʃənəli/ 15,6% 
(5/32) 
3,1% 
(1/32) 
81,3% 
(26/32) 
rich /rɪtʃ/ 56,25% 
(18/32) 
12,5% 
(4/32) 
31,25% 
(10/32) 
encourage /ɛnˈkʌrɪdʒ/ 31,3% 
(10/32) 
15,6% 
(5/32) 
53,1% 
(17/32) 
watching /wɒtʃɪŋ/ 68,8% 
(22/32) 
21,9% 
(7/32) 
9,3% 
(3/32) 
literature /lɪtərətʃə/ 25% 
(8/32) 
40,6% 
(13/32) 
34,4% 
(11/32) 
language /laŋɡwɪdʒ/ 34,4% 
(11/32) 
25% 
(8/32) 
40,6% 
(13/32) 
bird-watching /bəːd-wɒtʃɪŋ/ 56,25% 
(18/32) 
37,5% 
(12/32) 
6,25% 
(2/32) 
church /tʃəːtʃ/ 34,4% 
(11/32) 
43,8% 
(14/32) 
21,8% 
(7/32) 
Table 5. The analysis of nasals 
 Accuracy level 
High Intermediate Low 
nikki 96.9% 
(31/32)
0% 
(0/32)
3.1% 
(1/32) 
homeschooling /həʊmskuːlɪŋ/ 87.5% 
(28/32)
12.5% 
(4/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
an /ən/ 100% 
(32/32)
0% 
(0/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
many /mɛni/ 96.9% 
(31/32)
3.1% 
(1/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
traditional /trəˈdɪʃənəl/ 93.75% 
(30/32)
6.25% 
(2/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
academics /ˌækəˈdemɪk/ 100% 
(32/32)
0% 
(0/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
in /ɪn/ 100% 
(0/32)
0% 
(0/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
contrast /ˈkɑːntræst/ 84.4% 
(27/32)
15.6% 
(5/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
homeschooler /həʊmskuːlə/ 96.9% 0% 3.1% 
ijel.ccsenet.org International Journal of English Linguistics Vol. 8, No. 2; 2018 
303 
(31/32) (0/32) (1/32) 
from /frɒm/ 96.9% 
(31/32)
3.1% 
(1/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
kentucky 100% 
(32/32)
0% 
(0/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
never /ˈnevər/ 100% 
(32/32)
0% 
(0/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
no /nəʊ/ 100% 
(32/32)
0% 
(0/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
different /dɪfərənt/ 100% 
(32/32)
0% 
(0/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
mechanic /mə ˈkæ nɪk/ 65.6% 
(21/32)
31.3% 
(10/32)
3.1% 
(1/32) 
united /juːˈnʌɪtɪd/ 90.6% 
(29/32)
6.3% 
(2/32)
3.1% 
(1/32) 
mother /mʌðə/ 93.8% 
(30/32)
3.1% 
(1/32)
3.1% 
(1/32) 
formal /fɔːməl/ 90.6% 
(29/32)
9.4% 
(3/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
education /ɛdjʊˈkeɪʃən/ 90.6% 
(29/32)
9.4% 
(3/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
diploma /dɪˈpləʊmə/ 87.5% 
(28/32)
9.4% 
(3/32)
3.1% 
(1/32) 
homeschools /ˈhəʊmskuːlz/ 100% 
(32/32)
0% 
(0/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
and /ənd/ 100% 
(32/32)
0% 
(0/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
younger /ˈjʌnɡə/ 56.25% 
(18/32)
6.25% 
(2/32)
37.5% 
(12/32) 
seven /ˈsɛvən/ 96.9% 
(21/32)
0% 
(0/32)
3,1% 
(1/32) 
ten /tɛn/ 96.9% 
(21/32)
0% 
(0/32)
3,1% 
(1/32) 
using /juːzɪŋ/ 100% 
(32/32)
0% 
(0/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
unschooling /ʌnskuːlɪŋ/ 81.3% 
(26/32)
15.6% 
(5/32)
3.1% 
(1/32) 
traditionalist /trəˈdɪʃənəlɪst/ 93.8% 
(30/32)
3,1% 
(1/32)
3.1% 
(1/32) 
curriculum-oriented /kəˈrɪkjʊləm-ɔːrɪənt/ 65.6% 
(21/32)
25% 
(8/32)
9.4% 
(3/32) 
learn /ləːn/ 96.9% 
(31/32)
3.1% 
(1/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
unschooler /ʌnskuːlə/ 93.75% 
(30/32)
6.25% 
(2/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
children /tʃɪldrən/ 87.5% 
(28/32)
12.5% 
(4/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
more /mɔːri/ 90.6% 
(29/32)
6.3% 
(2/32)
3.1% 
(1/32) 
learners /ˈləːnəz/ 96.9% 
(31/32)
3.1% 
(1/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
when /wɛn/ 100% 
(32/32)
0% 
(0/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
interest /ɪntərɪst/ 78.1% 
(25/32)
21.9% 
(7/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
parent /pɛːrənt/ 
87.5% 
(28/32)
3.1% 
(1/32)
9.4% 
(3/32) 
educationally /ˌɛdʒʊˈkeɪʃənəli/ 
78.1% 
(25/32)
12.5% 
(4/32)
9.4% 
(3/32) 
home /həʊm/ 
96.9% 
(31/32)
0% 
(0/32)
3.1% 
(1/32) 
environment /ɛnˈvʌɪrənmənt/ 
75% 
(24/32)
15.6% 
(5/32)
9.4% 
(3/32) 
encourage /ɛnˈkʌrɪdʒ/ 
75% 
(24/32)
18.75% 
(6/32)
6.25% 
(2/32) 
them /ðɛm/ 
100% 
(32/32)
0% 
(0/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
curriculum /kəˈrɪkjʊləm/ 
93.75% 
(30/32)
6.25% 
(2/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
encourage /ɛnˈkʌrɪdʒ/ 
75% 
(24/32)
18.75% 
(6/32)
6.25% 
(2/32) 
them /ðɛm/ 
100% 
(32/32)
0% 
(0/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
curriculum /kəˈrɪkjʊləm/ 
93.75% 
(30/32)
6.25% 
(2/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
ijel.ccsenet.org International Journal of English Linguistics Vol. 8, No. 2; 2018 
304 
determinded /dɪˈtəːmɪnd/ 
59.3% 
(19/32)
31.3% 
(10/32)
9.4% 
(3/32) 
watching /wɒtʃɪŋ/ 
96.9% 
(31/32)
0% 
(0/32)
3.1% 
(1/32) 
film /fɪlm/ 
87.5% 
(2/32)
12.5% 
(4/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
henry 
90.6% 
(29/32)
3.1% 
(1/32)
6.3% 
(2/32) 
become /bɪˈkʌm/ 
100% 
(32/32)
0% 
(0/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
lesson /lɛsən/ 
96.9% 
(31/32)
3.1% 
(1/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
reading /ri:dɪŋ/ 
90.6% 
(29/32)
9.4% 
(3/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
English /ɪŋɡlɪʃ/ 
90.6% 
(29/32)
6.3% 
(2/32)
3.1% 
(1/32) 
language /laŋɡwɪdʒ/ 
84.3% 
(27/32)
9.4% 
(3/32)
6.3% 
(2/32) 
bird-watching /bəːd-wɒtʃɪŋ/ 
84.4% 
(27/32)
15.6% 
(5/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
science /sʌɪəns/ 
84.4% 
(27/32)
9.4% 
(3/32)
6.2% 
(2/32) 
helping /hɛlpɪŋ/ 
81.3% 
(26/32)
18.7% 
(6/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
bookkeeping /ˈbʊkkiːpɪŋ/ 
84.4% 
(27/32)
12.5% 
(4/32)
3.1% 
(1/32) 
math /maθ/ 
87.5% 
(28/32)
9.4% 
(3/32)
3.1% 
(1/32) 
opportunities /ɒpəˈtjuːnɪtiz/ 
68.8% 
(22/32)
28.1% 
(9/32)
3.1% 
(1/32) 
endless /ɛndləs/ 87.5% 
(28/32)
9.4% 
(3/32)
3.1% 
(1/32) 
determinded /dɪˈtəːmɪnd/ 
59.3% 
(19/32)
31.3% 
(10/32)
9.4% 
(3/32) 
watching /wɒtʃɪŋ/ 
96.9% 
(31/32)
0% 
(0/32)
3.1% 
(1/32) 
film /fɪlm/ 
87.5% 
(2/32)
12.5% 
(4/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
henry 
90.6% 
(29/32)
3.1% 
(1/32)
6.3% 
(2/32) 
become /bɪˈkʌm/ 
100% 
(32/32)
0% 
(0/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
lesson /lɛsən/ 
96.9% 
(31/32)
3.1% 
(1/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
reading /ri:dɪŋ/ 
90.6% 
(29/32)
9.4% 
(3/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
English /ɪŋɡlɪʃ/ 
90.6% 
(29/32)
6.3% 
(2/32)
3.1% 
(1/32) 
language /laŋɡwɪdʒ/ 
84.3% 
(27/32)
9.4% 
(3/32)
6.3% 
(2/32) 
bird-watching /bəːd-wɒtʃɪŋ/ 
84.4% 
(27/32)
15.6% 
(5/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
science /sʌɪəns/ 
84.4% 
(27/32)
9.4% 
(3/32)
6.2% 
(2/32) 
helping /hɛlpɪŋ/ 
81.3% 
(26/32)
18.7% 
(6/32)
0% 
(0/32) 
bookkeeping /ˈbʊkkiːpɪŋ/ 
84.4% 
(27/32)
12.5% 
(4/32)
3.1% 
(1/32) 
math /maθ/ 
87.5% 
(28/32)
9.4% 
(3/32)
3.1% 
(1/32) 
opportunities /ɒpəˈtjuːnɪtiz/ 
68.8% 
(22/32)
28.1% 
(9/32)
3.1% 
(1/32) 
endless /ɛndləs/ 87.5% 
(28/32)
9.4% 
(3/32)
3.1% 
(1/32) 
The analysis shows that the participants made more errors with the pronunciation of affricates than nasals. In 
particular, the affricates in the final position were often skipped or omitted by the participants. The participants 
also made more errors with the pronunciation of /ŋ/ than the other nasals. 
5. Conclusions 
5.1 General Conclusions 
In conclusion, from many records collected, there are many mistakes at the way each EFL student pronounced. 
ijel.ccsenet.org International Journal of English Linguistics Vol. 8, No. 2; 2018 
305 
Most EFL students mispronounced both /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ as they still did not know how to pronounce words that 
contain these phonemes. That was why the percentage of high accuracy in affricates arrived at 68.8% and the 
words “education” and “educationally” had the highest rate of low accuracy pronunciation (81.3%) in all 11 
words that contain affricates. The participants, in fact, made the phonemes /t/ and /d/ in these words respectively 
instead. The interview revealed that they did not know this and their pronunciation of these words were 
influenced by their previous teachers. They also said that those words based on their spelling and did not really 
know the correct phonetic features. While in nasals, most words with /m/ and /n/ were pronounced correctly or 
clearly enough for listeners to hear and to understand, but the word “younger”, with 37.5% of low accuracy, 
proved that /ŋ/ in nasals is mostly mispronounced. 
5.2 Recommendations 
There are many ways to improve student’ pronunciations of affricates and nasals. As Szpyra-Kozlowska (2016) 
pointed out that “People with poor pronunciation often lack the confidence to speak up and try to say as little as 
possible. On the other hand, good pronunciation provides learners with the confidence to engage in 
conversations with other speakers of English, allows them to sound able and competent, and gives them a sense 
of achievement. It is an asset that cannot be underestimated.’’ Therefore, in order to improve their pronunciation, 
EFL students must check on themselves to be more confident in speaking and try to correct their pronunciation 
of affricates and nasals. In affricates, trying to distinguish the difference between /tʃ/ and /dʒ/, especially in some 
words like education and church, is relatively significant. In nasals, most EFL students are good at pronouncing 
/m/, /n/ in many and parent, but some might have a lack of pronouncing / ŋ / in some words like singer and 
English. 
Acknowledgement 
The researcher would like to send thanks to all the participants involved in the study. Secondly, thanks would go 
to all the teaching staff at Faculty of Foreign Languages, Van Hien University for their assistance and opinions 
on this research. Greatest thanks would also go to Truong Thi Nhut Minh, Hong The Kiet, Pham Quoc Anh and 
Le Phu Loi at Van Hien University for their assistance in collecting the data. 
References 
Bui, P. H. (2016). Evaluation of an In-Service Training Program for Elemntary School Teachers of English in 
Vietnam. International Journal of English Linguistics, 6(4), 96-103. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v6n4p96 
Bui, P. H., & Tran, T. H. (2016). Teachers’ and Students’ Attitudes towards the Implementation of Content-Based 
Instruction in Higher Education in Ho Chi Minh City. English Language Teaching, 9(5), 106-118. 
https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v9n5p106 
Clark, J., Yallop, C., & Fletcher, J. (1995). An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology (2nd ed.). Oxford: 
Blackwell Publishing. 
Dikilitaş, S., & Geylanioğlu, K. (2012). Pronunciation Errors of Turish Learners of English: Conceptualization 
Theory as a Teaching Method. The Journal of Language Teaching and Learning, 2(1), 38-50. 
Duong, T. N. (2009). Mistake or Vietnamese English. VNU Journal of Science, Foreign Languages, 25, 41-50. 
Graceffo, A. (2010). Teaching English Pronunciation to Vietnamese Students. Foreign Policy Journal. 
Hancock, M. (2003). English Pronunciation in use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
Hassan, E. M. I. (2014). Pronunciation Problems: A Case Study of English Language Students at Sudan 
University of Science and Technology. English Language and Literature Studies, 4(4), 31-44. 
https://doi.org/10.5539/ells.v4n4p31 
Huynh, T. N., & Dutta, H. (2017). The Adaptation of French Consonant Clusters in Vietnamese Phonology: An 
OT Account. Journal of Universal Language, 18(1), 69-103. https://doi.org/10.22425/jul.2017.18.1.69 
Kirby, J. P. (2011). Vietnamese (Hanoi Vietnamese). Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 41(3), 
381-392. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025100311000181 
Mirza, H. S. (2015). ESL and EFL Learners Improve Differently in Pronunciation: The Case Study of Lebanon. 
Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 199(2015), 485-495. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.07.536 
Ohata, K. (2004). Phonological Differences between Japanese and English: Potentially Problematic Areas of 
Pronunciation for Japanese ESL/EFL Learners. The Asian EFL Journal, 6(4), 1-19. 
ijel.ccsenet.org International Journal of English Linguistics Vol. 8, No. 2; 2018 
306 
Pisoni, D. B., & Remez, R. E. (2004). The Handbook of Speech Perception. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. 
https://doi.org/10.1111/b.9780631229278.2004.x 
Roach, P. (2001). English Phonetics and Phonology (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
Shak, P., Lee, C. S., & Stephen, J. (2016). Pronunciation Problems: A Cause Study on English pronunciation 
Errors of Low Proficient Students. International Journal of Language Education and Applied Linguistics, 4, 
25-35. 
Szpyra-Kozlowska, J. (2016). Pronunciation in EFL Instruction: A Research-Based Approach. ELT Journal, 
70(3), 349-351. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccw031 
Appendix 
(Selected paragraph) 
“Nikki’s approach to homeschooling- an approach many would call “traditional academics”- worked well for her. 
In contrast, David Jackson, a 15-year-old homeschooler from Louisville, Kentucky, says, “We never use 
textbooks and have no typical days. Every day is different. “David’s father is a mechanic with United Parcel 
Service. His mother Gail’s formal education ended with her high school diploma. She homeschools David and 
his three younger brothers, ages seven, ten, and twelve, using an approach called unschooling. 
Traditionalists and curriculum-oriented homeschools believe that kids learn best with schedules, textbooks, and 
tests. Unschoolers say just the opposite- that children are more avid learners when their interests direct their 
education. Unschooling parents provide educationally rich home environments and encourage their children to 
study whatever appeals to them. “Curriculum” is usually determined after the fact. Watching a film like 
Shakespeare’s Henry V becomes a lesson in history and literature. Reading books selected from the library is 
English or language arts. Bird-watching is science, and helping with church bookkeeping is mat 
Copyrights 
Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. 
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 
license (